Academic Classification
This overiew of classification is published by Dr R.H. Marijnissen in Paintings Genuine, Fraud, Fake: Modern Methods of Examining Paintings, Brussel, Elsevier, 1985. In our opinion it is still the leading academic definition of authenticity. For editing purposes we made some small adjustments
Academic overview of classification of the object of research
1. The painting, signed or not, is made in its entirety by the author. It is comparable to an autograph
This category encompasses paintings that are made in their entirety by only the painter
2. The painting is completed with assistance of a workshop. The workshop assistance integrated the painting using the style and technique of the Master
This category encompasses paintings made within a workshop by a Master and his assistant’s and/or students. The cooperation within a workshop between the Master and his co-workers was so streamlined and coherent that their contributions merge. It is nearly impossible to tell the hands of Master and co-workers apart
3. The painting is the result of cooperation between two or more artists. Each responsible for a part of the execution
This category encompasses paintings that are the result of two or more painters working together. A good example of this category are Rubens and Jan Breughel. Rubens was responsible for the figures, Breughel for the landscape
4. An unfinished painting, for whatever reason, was completed by a different painter
This category encompasses unfinished paintings that are finished after the death of the original artist by a different painter. This category is hard to identify, because its identification largely relies on archival sources. Another difficulty is recognising the level of completeness of the painting when the original painter died
5. The painting is a replica by the artist of the original painting
This category encompasses paintings that are a replica made by the artist of the original painting. This can be a direct copy of the original, but also the repetition of a certain motif or composition
6. The painting is a workshop replica, made under the supervision of the Master, possibly with his participation
This category encompasses the same type of paintings as 5. only this time they are painted by the workshop instead of the master
7. The work is (industrially) produced in a series
This category encompasses works that are produced in multiples. Prints are the best example of this category. The precise number of prints of one work is hard to control due to its international dissemination. It is often unclear which works are authentic and which are a reproduction. There are also examples of print numbers being changed to lower numbers
8. The painting is a more or less true copy of the original
This category encompasses paintings that are copies made outside of the workshop. The terms copy and replica are often used as synonyms, especially in old documents. Today the term copy defines paintings made after an original one outside the workshop, while replicas are made within the workshop of the original painter. This distinction is hard to make if the copy/replica is contemporary with the original
9. The painting is a copy made as a study-copy
This category encompasses paintings that serve as study-material for a painter other than the original artist. The original is fully or partially copied in a detailed or schematic fashion. The danger with these paintings is that if the study-copies, are relatively true to the original, they could easily be mistaken for a study by the original artist. The practice of study-copies was most preeminent in the 19th century in museums
10. The painting is in the style of another painter
This category encompasses paintings that are made after or in the style of another painter. The painter incorporates the style of another painter in his own work; this varies from slavish imitation of the Master to a citation of his work. The term ‘school of’ should not be used for this category, as it has too many possible meanings
11. The painting is authentic, but misleading or fraudulent additions have been made
The category encompasses authentic paintings that have been modified with misleading and fraudulent additions to increase their value. These are paintings of minor artists (moneywise) who added details such as a false signature or inscription to increase the value of the paint
12. The painting has undergone serious alterations through human intervention
This category encompasses paintings that have been changed significantly by human intervention. This can be the result of an extensive restoration of a heavily damaged work, even leading to an entirely new creation. It can also be the result of the destruction of the original work, best exemplified by the cutting up of altarpieces. Lastly, it can be the result of alterations made in assignment of the owner, transforming the original object
13. The object is an industrially made reproduction, which after treatment is made to look like a painting
This category encompasses objects that are industrial reproductions of certain works of art made to look like paintings. An early example is chromolithographs. Originally this was not meant as forgery, but these reproductions have been used on several occasions for fraudulent purposes
14. The painting is a complete forgery, using only modern materials
This category encompasses paintings that are forgeries made with modern materials. A forgery is a painting made with the intention to deceive. This category of forgeries is easy identifiable through technical research, unless it is a forgery of a contemporary work of art
15. The painting is a complete forgery, using only old materials
This category encompasses paintings that are forgeries made with old materials. By using materials that are old, recovered from original works, the forger tries to avoid the problems that material dating provides. The materials of these forgeries, try to, match the material of an old painting
16. The painting is a complete forgery, using old and modern materials
This category encompasses paintings that are forgeries made with old and modern materials or techniques. By using materials that are old, for example recovered from original works, the forger tries to avoid material dating. Modern materials or techniques of these forgeries, try to, match an original
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